Statistics & results interpretation
Most statistical problems in a thesis are interpretation problems. These guides explain p-values, confidence intervals and effect sizes in plain language, how to choose a test, and how to report results without producing a list of p-values.
Choose the right test, then read and report the output in a way that answers your research question.
- Which statistical test fits my variables?
- What does p > 0.05 actually mean for my study?
- How do I report results so reviewers can follow them?
Start here
How to Choose the Right Statistical Test Without Memorising a Table
Stop choosing tests from a giant table. Start with the research question, outcome, comparison, dependence, design and effect estimate you actually need.
Read guideKey guides
P-Value Less Than 0.05: Meaning and Reporting Examples
What does p < 0.05 mean? Learn what a statistically significant p-value tells you, what it does not tell you and how to report it correctly.
6 min readP-Value Greater Than 0.05: Meaning and Reporting Examples
A p-value above 0.05 does not prove there is no effect. Learn how to interpret non-significant results using effect estimates and confidence intervals.
7 min readHow to Interpret a 95% Confidence Interval
Learn how to interpret a 95% confidence interval, what its width means, why the null value matters and how to report confidence intervals correctly.
7 min readP-Values, Confidence Intervals and Effect Sizes: How to Read Them Together
P-values, confidence intervals and effect estimates answer different questions. Learn how to read them together and interpret results without reducing everything to significance.
8 min readStatistically Significant Does Not Mean Important: How to Judge Whether a Result Matters
A small p-value does not tell you whether a finding matters. Learn how to judge clinical, practical and programmatic importance using effect size, uncertainty and context.
6 min readHow to Report Quantitative Results Without Turning Your Results Section Into a P-Value List
Write a quantitative results section that tells readers what you found, not just which p-values crossed 0.05. Includes practical before-and-after examples.
7 min readHow to Choose Variables for a Quantitative Study Before You Open SPSS
Choose variables from your research question and causal logic, not from a list of demographics or bivariate p-values. A practical workflow for quantitative studies.
8 min readIndependent, Dependent, Confounding and Mediating Variables: What They Actually Do in a Study
Learn what exposure, outcome, confounder and mediator mean using one research example, and why a variable's role depends on the causal question.
8 min readOdds Ratio vs Risk Ratio: A Worked Example
See why an odds ratio and risk ratio can describe the same data with different numbers, and how to report each without exaggerating the finding.
3 min readLikert Scale Analysis: Single Items vs Multi-item Scores
Distinguish a single ordered response from a multi-item score, and choose summaries and analyses that match the measure and study question.
3 min readTable 1 in a Research Paper: Example and Checklist
Build a clear participant-characteristics table with appropriate summaries, explicit denominators and a defensible role for comparisons.
3 min readPaired Pre–Post Data: Check the Pairs Before Analysis
Audit identifiers, follow-up windows and attrition before comparing pre- and post-scores, and report the population your estimate represents.
3 min readResearch Data Dictionary: Template and Example
Document variable meanings, units, codes, missing values and derivations so your dataset can be interpreted and analysed consistently.
3 min readData Cleaning Log: Template and Worked Example
Create a reproducible cleaning log that separates detected problems, investigation and justified corrections while preserving raw data.
3 min readMissing Data Analysis: Audit Patterns Before Choosing a Method
Audit missing values by variable, participant, time point and study group before deciding whether complete-case analysis or imputation is defensible.
3 min read
Tools and templates
See everything for this stage: what to learn, use, download and check.